Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program

An Applied Dissertation Submitted to the

Abraham S. Fischler College of Education

and School of Criminal Justice in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Education

Nova Southeastern University

2023

Approval Page

This applied dissertation was submitted by Ternesha Pittman under the direction of the persons listed below. It was submitted to the Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education at Nova Southeastern University.

Shery Bennett, EdD

Committee Chair

Barbara Christina, EdD

Committee Member

Kimberly Durham, PsyD

Dean

Statement of Original Work

I declare the following:

I have read the Code of Student Conduct and Academic Responsibility as described in the Student Handbook of Nova Southeastern University. This applied dissertation represents my original work, except where I have acknowledged the ideas, words, or material of other authors.

Where another author’s ideas have been presented in this applied dissertation, I have acknowledged the author’s ideas by citing them in the required style.

Where another author’s words have been presented in this applied dissertation, I have acknowledged the author’s words by using appropriate quotation devices and citations in the required style.

I have obtained permission from the author or publisher—in accordance with the required guidelines—to include any copyrighted material (e.g., tables, figures, survey instruments, large portions of text) in this applied dissertation manuscript.

Ternesha Pittman__________

Name

February 14, 2023__________

Date

Abstract

Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program: A Phenomenological Perspective. Ternesha Pittman, 2023: Applied Dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice. Keywords: attention span, pre-kindergarten

The first paragraph must contain all of the elements shown in this sample. The applied dissertation title, your name (surname last), and the year must be identical to the title, name, and year on the title page.

Single-space within each paragraph, but double-space between paragraphs. Do not indent the first lines of paragraphs. The narrative portion (i.e., after the informational first paragraph) of the abstract should be 220-270 words. The abstract must not exceed one page in length. See section 2.04 of the APA manual for content guidelines.

[INSERT DESCRIPTION OF DISSERTATION- Example Follows]: This applied dissertation was designed to provide better access to current information for the students and staff in a middle school. The printed materials located in the school’s media center were outdated, scarce, or inadequate. Electronic databases were available in the media center for online searching and information retrieval. However, the students did not know how to use databases as a source for completing class assignments or how to browse within these online services to find additional information. Teachers also did not know to use electronic information to enrich their lessons.

The researcher developed lesson plans and strategies to train students and teachers on two online services available in the media center. Daily sessions on these databases provided students and teachers with training in (a) e-mail usage, (b) searching and locating current events information, (c) printing from the screen, (d) saving messages, and (e) dialing into the online services. Teachers were encouraged to continue to use these services for curriculum enrichment and as an additional source for future lesson plans.

An analysis of the data revealed that students were more likely than teachers to use the online databases. The most successful activities were those that involved students in research information about current events. Although teachers planned assignments that required the use of online services, they did not want to provide additional time for students to be in the media center.

Table of Contents Comment by Dr Shery Bennett: I had already fixed this why did you change it? The table of contents is not in italics and many of these headings do not go here. I already fixed this once. So now it has to be fixed again. These are single spaced times new roman, no italics. This will have to be done again.

Abstract iv Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Statement of the Problem 1 The Research Problem 2 Background and Justification 4 Deficiencies in the Evidence 5 Audience 7 The Setting of the Study 7 Researcher’s Role 8 Purpose of the Study 9 Definition of Terms 10 Chapter 2: Literature Review 13 Introduction 13 Theory of Attention 14 How Further Research Should Extend 17 Shortcomings of the Previous Research 18 Critiques on Literature 20 Factors Associated with Attention Problems in Preschoolers 21 Problems with Focus in Preschoolers 23 Attention and Cognitive Development in Kindergarten 26 Significance of Children’s Concentration-Persistence for Future Success 29 Research Question Considerations 32 Recommendations 35 Strategies to Improve Attention Spans 36 Teacher-Directed Reading 36 Significance of Considering the Setting 37 Contextual Changes in Instructional Materials 38 Apprenticeship in the Classroom Language 40 Hybridity and the Growth of Third Spaces 42 Computer-based Instruction 43 Training Programs Offered by Computer-based Instruction 43 Executive Functions Training 43 Math School-based Programs 45 Parental Involvement Programs 46 Types of Parental Involvement Programs to Benefit Students 47 Parental Involvement During Family Mealtime Conversation 49 Conclusion 50 Research Questions 50 References 55 Chapter 4: Findings 67 Chapter 5: Discussion 68

Appendices

A Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case—Begin a Second Line Directly Below the First Line 60

B Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case 62

Tables

1 Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case 10

2 Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case 48

Figure

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

The problem addressed in this study is the difficulty pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs maintain attention while engaged in reading activities. Research has shown that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, as it directly impacts a child’s ability to process and understand the material they are reading (Ledford et al., 2008).

Evidence supporting the existence of the problem includes studies that found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008). Additionally, research has shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002). There is a trend of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs having difficulty with attention and focus during reading activities. The setting for this study will take place at elementary schools in Southeastern Florida for pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

Probable causes of the problem include lack of parental involvement, teacher-directed reading and computer-based instruction, and lack of individualised instruction (Ledford et al., 2000). The specific and feasible statement of the problem is to determine the effectiveness of different strategies, such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Tian et al., 2020).

The problem can be attributed to various factors, including the increasing use of technology in the classroom, changes in family dynamics and parenting practices, and a general decline in physical activity levels (Kim et al., 2018). Research has shown that excessive screen time can lead to decreased attention spans and difficulty focusing on other tasks, such as reading (Benton et al., 1987). Additionally, some families have become more reliant on technology for entertainment and education, leading to less time spent on traditional activities such as reading together (Schuck et al., 2018). Furthermore, the sedentary lifestyle many children lead today is a contributing factor, as physical activity has been linked to improved cognitive function and attention (Geri et al., 2017).

The problem of decreased attention spans in Pre-K students in Head-start programs is compounded by the fact that these children are at a critical stage in their development when their brains are rapidly forming and growing. During this time, children develop foundational skills and knowledge that will set the foundation for future success in school and beyond (Basso et al., 2016).

In conclusion, the problem of decreased attention spans in Pre-K students in Head-start programs is a growing concern that affects not only the students but also their families and teachers. The problem is complex and can be attributed to various factors, including technology, changes in family dynamics, and a decline in physical activity (Kim et al., 2018). Given the critical stage of development these children are in; the problem must be omitted to ensure that these students have the best chance for success in their future education and life.

The Research Problem

The research problem in this study is the gap between the desired level of attention and focus pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs should have while engaged in reading activities and the level of attention and focus currently observed (Bassok et al., 2016). While it is acknowledged that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities.

The gap in attention span can negatively impact their ability to process and understand the material they are reading and can also predict lower academic achievement in the Future (Tang & Posner, 2009; Gaston et al., 2016). The research problem is to investigate the strategies that can effectively close this gap and improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities, and how parental involvement can be effective in this regard (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016).

The gap between what is desired and what is observed in this situation concerns educators, parents, and researchers. Understanding the underlying causes of this problem is essential, as finding effective solutions to improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Doherty et al., 2002). This research problem is particularly relevant in today’s world, where technology and digital devices are becoming increasingly prevalent and may affect children’s attention spans.

In general, the research problem of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program is a critical issue that deserves attention and research. By finding effective solutions, we can ensure that pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs receive the support they need to succeed in their education and beyond (Kim et al., 2018). A successful solution will not only benefit these students but also have a positive impact on their future academic careers and lives

Background and Justification

The problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs is well-documented in the literature (Reid et al., 2015). Research has shown that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, as it directly impacts a child’s ability to process and understand the material they are reading (Ledford et al., 2008). Studies have found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008; Wasik et al., 2009). Additionally, research has shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002).

Furthermore, parental involvement in reading activities has been shown to positively affect children’s reading skills, vocabulary, and comprehension (Karweit, 1989; Wasik et al., 2009). Studies have also found that computer-based instruction can effectively improve reading skills, especially for students with poor reading skills (Kim et al., 2018). The problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs is relevant as it can negatively impact their ability to process and understand the material they are reading and can also predict lower academic achievement in the Future (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Thus, it is important to investigate strategies that can effectively improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and investigate parental involvement’s role.

Deficiencies in the Evidence

There are many literature sources focusing on the challenges in maintaining attention during reading activities among pre-kindergarten students enrolled in Head-start programs. However, there are still several areas that need improvement (Kikas et al., 2018). One thing to improve on is to perform more studies that narrow down to precise strategies that can successfully improve the attention span of learners in Head-starts programs during the reading activities (Murray et al., 2018; Silverstein et al., 2001). Some studies have explored the role of parental involvement during reading session and they identify that additional research need to be performed to assess its effectiveness (Alvarado et al., 2017). While some studies are inclining towards investigating the efficiency of computer-based instruction on reading abilities, still advanced research need to be performed in this area to assess its effectiveness in increasing learners’ attention span (Ledford et al., 2008).

Another need for the problem is more research on the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). While some studies have investigated the relationship between attention span and academic achievement, there needs to be more research on the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

Given these deficiencies in the evidence, there is a need for further research to investigate the specific strategies and parental involvement that can be effective in improving the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021).

Moreover, while some studies have looked into how well computer-based instruction affects reading abilities, there needs to be more data on how well technology affects pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs’ attention spans when participating in reading activities (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Lack of Study on the long-term consequences of attention span enhancement on students’ academic performance and success is another area of need regarding the issue (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). Research on the long-term consequences of interventions to increase attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs still needs to be completed, despite several studies examining the association between attention span and academic achievement.

In conclusion, there are deficiencies in the evidence related to the problem of low attention span in pre-kindergarten students while reading (Basso et al., 2016). The literature needs a comprehensive understanding of the underlying causes of this problem and the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving attention span. This study aims to address these deficiencies in the evidence and provide new insights into this important issue. Given these deficiencies in the evidence, there is a need for further research to investigate the specific strategies and parental involvement that can be effective in improving the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021).

Audience

The audience affected by the problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs includes the pre-kindergarten students themselves, as well as their families, teachers, and the broader community. Pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs who struggle with attention and focus during reading activities may have difficulty processing and understanding the material, which can negatively impact their reading development and academic achievement. It can lead to difficulties in later grades and potentially impact their future success.

In addition to the pre-kindergarten students, their families, and communities are also affected by this problem. Parents and caregivers play a critical role in supporting their children’s education and development. A lack of attention span in reading can lead to difficulties in communication and bonding between children and their families (Kim et al., 2018). Furthermore, a lack of attention span can also impact these students’ educational attainment and future success, which can have ripple effects on their communities.

The Setting of the Study

The setting for this study will take place at Southeastern Florida, pre-kindergarten, a Head-start program. Head-start programs are federally funded programs that provide comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. The classrooms in these programs typically include students between the ages of 3 and 5 who come from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, with an average of 20 to 40 students.

In Southeastern Florida, pre-kindergarten is in an urban area, with classrooms and students ethnically and culturally diverse (Raver, 2002). The study will focus on implementing different strategies such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction in these classrooms and the impact these strategies have on the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities.

The study will take place in multiple pre-kindergarten settings within the Head-Start program to provide a comprehensive understanding of the problem. It will help ensure that the study’s findings are representative of the population of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs and are not biased by the specific characteristics of a single setting (Karweit, 1989).

In conclusion, the setting for the Study of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in the Head-start Program will be pre-kindergarten classrooms within the Head Start program (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). This setting provides an ideal environment for observing and assessing students’ attention spans and implementing interventions to improve their attention spans. (Karweit, 1989).

Researcher’s Role

In this study’s context, the researcher will design and conduct the study, collect and analyse data, and interpret and report the findings. The researcher will be responsible for ensuring that the study is conducted ethically and rigorously, with appropriate safeguards in place to protect the rights and well-being of participants.

In addition, the researcher will collaborate with other members of the research team, including educators, administrators, and other professionals, as needed. This collaboration would be critical in ensuring that the study is designed and implemented feasibly and that it considers the needs and perspectives of all stakeholders involved.

The researcher will also be responsible for disseminating the study’s findings to the wider academic community and relevant stakeholders, including educators, policymakers, families, and communities. This dissemination would be critical in ensuring that the study’s findings are used to inform the development of policies and programs that support the education and development of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs.

In conclusion, the role of the researcher in the Study of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in the Head-start Program is critical. The researcher will be responsible for designing and conducting the study, collecting and analysing data, and interpreting and reporting the findings. The researcher will also collaborate with other research team members and disseminate the study findings to relevant stakeholders.

Purpose of the Study

This study investigates the effectiveness of different strategies, such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). Additionally, the study aims to examine the role of parental involvement in promoting the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Kim et al., 2018). The study seeks to provide insight and evidence on the best methods to improve attention span in young children, which will benefit educators, parents, and policymakers (Wrońska et al., 2015). Ultimately, the study aims to improve the reading development and academic achievement of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, which can positively impact their future success.

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of interventions to improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs. At the same time, they engage in reading activities (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). This information will be critical in informing the development of educational programs and policies that support the education and development of young children in Head Start programs and will provide insights into the strategies and approaches that are most effective in improving attention span and promoting success in reading activities

Definition of Terms

Pre-Kindergarten (PK) and Voluntary Pre-Kindergarten (VPK) are educational programs designed for children who are 4 or 5 years old and have yet to start kindergarten (Basso et al., 2016). Public schools usually offer Pre-Kindergarten (PK) programs. They are usually free of charge to families, although some programs may have specific requirements such as income limits or language proficiency (Basso et al., 2016). These programs are intended to provide early education to children to prepare them for kindergarten and future school success.

Voluntary Pre-Kindergarten (VPK) is a state-funded program in some states, such as Florida. It is intended to provide free educational opportunities for children four years old before kindergarten (Basso et al., 2016). The program is made available by public and commercial providers, and the teaching follows state-mandated guidelines that concentrate on educational, social, and emotional growth.

PK and VPK programs prepare children for kindergarten by providing early education focusing on literacy, numeracy, and social-emotional development (Rodriguez, 2013). They also offer opportunities for children to interact with their peers, build their language and communication skills, and develop their cognitive abilities while providing parents and caregivers with support and resources.

Head-start is for a limited number of children and their families in the United States; Head Start is a federal program that offers a wide range of early childhood education, health, nutrition, and intervention services (Hines, 2017). Initiated in 1965 as part of the War on Poverty, the program is now administered by the Department of Health and Human Services and helps more than a million children annually.

Head Start services are designed to enhance students’ cognitive knowledge and foster their social and emotional growth to prepare them for school success (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). The program provides early childhood education that includes activities that help children, help develop social and emotional, as well as language, reading, and numeracy skills (Pianta et al., 2021). The program also provides health and nutrition services, such as physical exams, dental care, and nutrition education, to help ensure that children are healthy and ready to learn.

Small group reading is a teaching approach in which a teacher works with a small group of students, typically 4-6, to provide targeted and differentiated instruction in reading (Kikas et al., 2018). It is an effective way to provide individualised instruction, adapt to the varying demands of children, and carefully track their development.

Teacher-directed reading is a teaching approach in which the teacher actively guides students through the reading process, providing explicit instruction, modelling, and feedback (Kikas et al., 2018). The approach emphasises the teacher’s role in leading and directing the reading instruction and the student’s role in actively following and engaging with the instruction.

During teacher-directed reading, the teacher introduces a new text or concept, provides background knowledge, and seeks a reading purpose (Lerkkanen et al., 2016). Then the teacher modelled the reading process, demonstrating strategies such as how to make predictions, identify main ideas, or use context clues. Next, the students practised these strategies with the teacher’s guidance, asking and answering questions, making connections, and applying their learned strategies.

Computer-based instruction refers to using computers and technology to deliver educational content and assessments to students. Computer-based instruction has become increasingly popular as technology has advanced and becomes more widely available (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). In Pre-K and Kindergarten (VK), computer-based instruction has been used to teach various subjects, including reading. The use of computers in early childhood education has been found to have both positive and negative effects on student learning and development.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

Scholarly materials on improving attention spans in the reading of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs shows that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development. Studies have found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008; Wasik et al., 2009). Research has also shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002).

Several studies have also investigated the effectiveness of different strategies in promoting the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities. For example, parental involvement in reading activities has been shown to positively affect children’s reading skills, vocabulary, and comprehension (Karweit, 1989; Wasik et al., 2009). Additionally, studies have found that computer-based instruction can effectively improve reading skills, especially for students with poor reading skills (Kim et al., 2018).

This section will synthesise the existing research on attention span, reading activities, and pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs. The review will focus on identifying the effective interventions that improve attention span in young children, as well as exploring the underlying mechanisms and processes that contribute to changes in attention span (Basso et al., 2016). The review will also examine the factors that may influence the effectiveness of interventions, such as the age of the students, the setting in which the interventions are implemented, and the type and intensity of the interventions.

Theoretical Framework

Theories on Reading Development

Different theories on reading development among childrens in Pre-kindergarten Headstart Programs provide a description of the different stages through which students develop reading skills from early development stages to advanced levels. A study by Laws (2010) identify that students start by relying on visual recognition of the entire written word and relate it to its pronunciation a stage identified logographic stage. This phase relies on understanding each printed word together with its oral form. Afterwards, the children progress to alphabetic stage and can understand the world based on the knowledge from letter sounds.

Another theory is Knowledge hypothesis by Anderson and Freebody’s which suggest that knowledge of words is a reflection of the background knowledge and a plan of the topic. Therefore understanding the meaning of phrases and words used within texts as well as the meaning of the word within the context of precise types of texts is integral in helping students to understand the text (Baker et al., 2014). On the contrary, Kintsch’s theory on discourse comprehension theory pinpoints that it is critical for adults to pose question to their children and to develop activities that will stimulate deep thinking and construct diverse knowledge of vocabularly. Deep learning require integration of prior information with the new knowledge and the outcomes is the prowes to use the newly information within new contexts (Baker et al., 2014).

Theory of Attention

Unusual is the notion that children exhibit signs of inattention. A child may find it challenging to be in an environment with several readily distracting stimuli. It takes work to concentrate on more than just one item. (Rojas, 2016) assert that many individuals frequently fail to pay attention. They need help to maintain their focus on what is most essential at any given time. It may endanger lives; for instance, accidents may occur if motorists disregard traffic signals at intersections.

According to them, paying attention consists of six distinct components. Several examples include attention span, previewing and planning, selectivity and saliency evaluation, distractibility, alertness and arousal, self-monitoring and self-regulation, and attention span. Awareness is the initial stage in attracting someone’s attention to the previously listed topics. This argues that to concentrate, one must be actively engaged in an activity. The next step is exercising discretion. At any one moment, many stimuli are continuously entering the system (Brendamour & Chai, 2016). The brain must choose which of these goals should be prioritised. The ability to pick which organisation-influencing actions to do is the “determination of salience.” This component is essential for daily tasks. The teacher would offer the essential instructions for the pupils to execute a task in class. Since writing all laws on paper is impossible, the brain must choose the most significant ones. The capacity to rapidly shift attention is the third need for attracting notice. Any unpleasant ideas, whether internal or external, are included. To focus on the current action, you must eliminate them. The attention span requirement is the fourth prerequisite.

It requires the perseverance and stamina necessary to complete the task at hand. Like the requirement for physical energy to run a marathon, mental energy is required to maintain concentration while working. The next step includes preliminary planning and analysis. Before launching a project, it is essential to analyse all possible outcomes and choose the strategy that would provide the best results (Brendamour & Chai, 2016). Before raising their hands to respond to a question on the teacher’s presentation, students should carefully consider their answers and refrain from shouting. The next phase of responsibilities includes self-control and self-monitoring. This is an essential step, especially when a project is well along. Enhanced self-discipline and behaviour monitoring boost concentration.

(Mackay, 1973) aims to clarify and explain the information filtering process. Using the bottleneck approach, the author illustrated how the water flow reduces as the bottleneck grows narrower. According to the Broadbent attention model, it is difficult for a person to absorb several sensory information simultaneously. Donald Broadbent pioneered the vast majority of data processing technologies. Conducted a study on air traffic controller operations. Broadbent conducted a “dichotic listening” study to understand this issue better. (Mackay, 1973) asserts that all input data is stored in a sensory buffer before being processed further and that one input is then selected based on its physical properties. Because our capacity to absorb information is limited, a filter has been devised to protect us from being exposed to overwhelming data. In addition, he asserts that unselected inputs are still there after the sensory buffer has been cleared. Broadbent was captivated by the processes that enable individuals to focus their attention (selective attention). He bombarded them with stimuli to achieve his goal. The data revealed unequivocally that individuals could concentrate on one activity simultaneously.

Consequently, the author developed the “filter” concept and the “single channel” technique. This method considers the sensory information that different physical qualities give. According to the research results, external stimuli are one of the most effective methods to boost a person’s capacity to concentrate for an extended time (Washington, 2017). The brain will be better able to focus and pay attention to the task at hand if the activity and instructions are presented one at a time. During a fine mobility task, such as threading a button onto a bottle, the brain may focus on a single action, such as picking up the button.

How Further Research Should Extend

Further research on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs should build upon the foundation of previous studies while also seeking to address some of the limitations and gaps in the existing evidence (Vaughn et al., 2002). It can be done by replicating previous studies to confirm the effectiveness of various interventions and by conducting new studies that test different interventions or explore new perspectives on the problem (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007).

One critical variable that future research should consider is the role of individual differences in attention span and reading ability, as well as other factors that may contribute to these difficulties, such as socioeconomic status, parental involvement, and access to resources. By exploring these factors, researchers can understand the problem and develop more effective interventions considering individual students’ unique needs and circumstances.

Another important area for future research is the effectiveness of technology-based interventions in improving attention span and reading ability in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). While previous studies have shown that these interventions can be effective, much is still to be learned about the best way to use technology to support student learning and how these interventions can be integrated into existing educational programs and practices.

Finally, future research needs to address how to sustain the gains in attention span and reading ability achieved through various interventions (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). It will require long-term studies that track the outcomes of students over time, as well as research into how schools and educators can support and reinforce the gains achieved through these interventions.

In conclusion, there is a clear need for further research on the problem of attention span in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs to build on the foundation of previous studies and address some of the limitations and gaps in the existing evidence (Vaughn et al., 2002). By exploring critical variables and important questions in this area, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the problem and develop more effective interventions that support the academic success of these young students (Basso et al., 2016).

Shortcomings of the Previous Research

It is crucial to evaluate the advantages of earlier studies and pinpoint their drawbacks to avoid them in future studies while reviewing the literature on increasing the attention spans of pre-kindergarten pupils in Head Start programs. By doing this, researchers may improve upon the shortcomings of earlier studies and build on their strengths.

One of the areas for improvement of prior research in this area is a need for more consistency in measuring attention span and reading ability. It can make it difficult to compare the results of different studies and to draw accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of different interventions (Basso et al., 2016). To avoid this limitation, future research should use consistent measures and make efforts to standardise these measures across different studies.

Another limitation of previous research is that many studies have been conducted with small sample sizes, limiting their findings’ generalizability (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). To address this limitation, future research should aim to include larger sample sizes, especially when testing new interventions, to increase the power of the study and make more accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of these interventions (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007).

Additionally, much earlier research concentrated on rapid results after the intervention, such as attention span and reading skills (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). However, it is important also to consider the long-term outcomes of these interventions and how they may impact students over time. To address this limitation, future research should include longer-term follow-up assessments to track the sustainability of any gains in attention span and reading ability.

On the other hand, some of the strengths should be investigated more in future studies. Using control groups, which helps to account for uncontrollable factors and provides more accurate evaluations of the efficacy of treatments, is one of these advantages (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Utilising randomised controlled trials, which improve the study’s internal validity and offer greater proof of the efficacy of therapies, is another strength.

In conclusion, by identifying the shortcomings of prior research and building upon their strengths, researchers can conduct more effective and robust studies on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Vaughn et al., 2002). By doing so, researchers can contribute to a growing body of knowledge in this area and provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of these young students.

Critiques on Literature

The literature review is an important foundation for any research proposal, as it provides a comprehensive understanding of the existing evidence on a given topic. However, it is also important to critically evaluate the literature to identify any controversial methodological decisions that may need to be addressed in the proposal (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). This essay will critique the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs, highlighting some of the controversies and limitations of previous studies that need to be considered when designing a new study.

One of the controversies in the literature on this topic is the use of different measures to assess attention span and reading ability (Basso et al., 2016). While some studies have used standardised measures, others have used more informal assessments or subjective ratings by teachers or parents. This variability in measures can make it difficult to compare the results of different studies and draw accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of different interventions. As such, researchers need to carefully consider which measures to use in their study, considering the strengths and limitations of each measure, to ensure that their results are accurate and reliable.

Another controversy in the literature is the need for more consensus on the most effective interventions for improving attention span and reading ability in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Gathercole et al., 2008). Some studies have focused on providing additional educational resources, while others have focused on behavioural interventions, such as reward systems or educational games (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). This intervention variability makes it difficult to determine which approach is most effective, and researchers must consider this when designing their study.

Additionally, there needs to be long-term studies on the impact of interventions on this population’s attention span and reading ability. While some studies have shown positive short-term effects, it is still being determined whether these effects are sustainable over time or how they may impact students in the long term. (Wasik et al., 2009). As such, researchers need to consider the need for longer-term follow-up assessments to understand the impact of interventions on this population fully.

In conclusion, the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs highlights several controversies and limitations that need to be taken into consideration when designing a new study (Basso et al., 2016). By critically evaluating the literature, researchers can make informed decisions about the measures to use and the interventions to focus on. The need for longer-term follow-up assessments to contribute to a growing body of knowledge in this area and provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of these young students (Peck et al., 2005).

Factors Associated with Attention Problems in Preschoolers

It is believed that environmental (Washington, 2017) variables have a role. 2002 research by Biederman and Faraone revealed a genetic link between early developmental variances in newborns’ attentional control. In a recent study that followed over 2,000 Canadian children from 5 months to 8 years, preterm birth, low birth weight, prenatal tobacco exposure, non-intact family, young maternal age, paternal history of antisocial behaviour, and maternal depression were found to be the strongest early predictors of attention problems. In this longitudinal study, children between the ages of 5 months and eight years were investigated (Washington, 2017). Similar to the preceding example, a recent Israeli study discovered that various child developmental characteristics were substantially associated with the later occurrence of ADHD (from birth to one month.

Among these risk variables were a family history of social problems and ADHD, a lower maternal education level, and an older maternal age. Between the ages of 3 and 18 months, a smaller head size, a delay in reaching motor and verbal milestones, and a demanding temperament were all highly associated with the later development of ADHD. As part of the Family Life Project, researchers studied the behaviour of children aged three to five. Their objective was to determine the risk variables for attention deficit disorders. They concluded that a single latent factor remained throughout the preschool years and triggered the appearance of symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. They also noticed that the degree of education of the carers was the greatest predictor of symptom severity (Mackay, 1973).

Since the beginning of this decade, concerns concerning young children’s use of screen media and the link between this behaviour and the appearance of attention issues at a younger age have progressively increased. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth indicates a correlation between daily television watching between the ages of 1 and 3 and attention issues at age 7. Some study indicates that brief exposure to television may have an immediate effect on the cognitive development of youngsters (Mackay, 1973).

According to newly published research, children who had just seen a fast-paced television show—specifically, a well-known animated cartoon about an underwater sponge—performed lower on the Tower of Hanoi test than children who had not seen the program (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). It is unknown if increased television viewing adds to or accelerates a reduction in attention span. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) advises against restricting screen time for infants younger than two years of age and against permitting older children to watch more than one to two hours of high-quality media daily (Lillard & Peterson, 2011).

Problems with Focus in Preschoolers

Children’s attention problems are often a feature of early infancy. Up to 40% of preschool-aged children already have attention problems that are serious enough to worry parents and preschool teachers (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). Between 3 and 15% of people in community samples, including those who do not meet the requirements for an ADHD diagnosis, exhibit signs of inattention. It has been observed that the percentage of clinical referrals is approaching or above 50% (Mahone, 2005). For instance, up to 72.7% of toddlers are labelled as “motor-driven” or “constantly active” (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). When toddlers exhibit inattention, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is seldom identified (ADHD). It may be a sign of various illnesses or ailments, such as hearing loss, language difficulties, intellectual disabilities, or other psychopathologies, that coexist with ADHD. It is more difficult to identify “disordered” attention, given the variance in caregiver perceptions of attention and the prevalence of ADHD symptoms in this age range (Mahone, 2005).

However, inattention is a common trait unrelated to early childhood development (Mahone, 2005). Preschoolers with attention issues have been better detected and treated during the last 20 years, especially those disorders that share symptoms with ADHD, such as distractibility and hyperactivity. The United States and other countries are becoming more interested in this (Mahone, 2005). Some theories contend that early detection and treatment of attention problems reduce the negative impacts of pediatric illnesses, making it simpler to get the right diagnosis or, more crucially, proving that no diagnostic is required.

The most common condition seen in preschoolers is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and prevalence estimates show that it is becoming increasingly common (). 2% of children in a sample of 38,666 general pediatric patients under the age of five were found to have ADHD, according to (Mahone et al., 2005), even though (Connor, 2000) claimed that the incidence might reach 59% in child psychiatric clinics. Participants in each of these studies were under the age of five. Subsequent research assessed 200 children under six who had been sent to an outpatient mental health clinic, and 86% met the diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Compared to their generally developing classmates, preschoolers with poor attentional abilities are substantially more likely to have social, developmental, and academic challenges. These worries could be linked to many developmental deficiencies.

Childhood attention problems are linked to teens’ poor social development and a higher risk of requiring emergency medical care (Mahone et al., 2005). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in early childhood has been linked to later academic failure and grade retention, even at subthreshold levels (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Six years later, children with behavioural issues are more likely to fulfil the official diagnostic criteria for ADHD. By 18, these kids are far more likely than other kids to experience sadness and suicidal thoughts. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention revealed that between 1998 and 2009, one in eleven American children between the ages of 5 and 17 had been given an ADHD diagnosis (CDC).

In contrast, during the last 20 years, there has been a sharp increase in the proportion of young women with attention problems. A recent, extensive epidemiological study including 3,907 kids showed that 49% of females and 51% of boys had ADHD. The research found that 8.7% of kids met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for ADHD (Froelich et al., 2007).It may be difficult to discern between attentional issues affecting normally developing children and those specifically linked with ADHD (or other co-occurring illnesses) until the age of four. However, early identification and treatment of preschoolers’ attention deficit disorders may lessen some negative effects (). Although early identification and treatment of toddlers’ attention issues may lessen their negative effects, this is the case (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Studies show that future reading, spelling, and arithmetic difficulties are more probable in children with the inattentive ADHD subtype. However, youngsters who initially exhibit unusually impulsive and hyperactive traits are more likely to acquire ADHD later. While Egger and colleagues found that the inattentive subtype of ADHD is present in fewer than one in 1,000 preschoolers in the general population, other studies have questioned the importance of this subtype throughout the preschool years.

Others have questioned the applicability of the Hyperactive-Impulsive subtype of ADHD to young children (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Therefore, it is essential to establish exact, impartial methods for assessing newborns’ attention. Based on individuals who use the criterion’s expectations, diagnostic thresholds are often noticed (such as parents and teachers). As a result, the definition of a “disorder” may alter over time. Additionally, relying only on a child’s parents or teachers to describe their symptoms might result in an overdiagnosis.

Additionally, fewer kids are diagnosed with ADHD when the impairment criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association—APA, 2000) are carefully followed (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007). Although ADHD is currently classified as a categorical phenomenon in the DSM-IV-TR, it is anticipated that these changes will be made in the DSM-V. Due to the potential that the condition displays dimensional oscillations rather than a category item, this is the circumstance (Mahone & Schneider, 2012).